​

The well-being of human societies and economies is closely related to the oceans. To Oceania, such connection is remarkably strong, as the oceans are an essential part of its identity. Not only do they define the region geographically, but they are also culturally and economically significant to its peoples. In this section we will explore how the oceans can help Oceania achieve sustainable development and mitigate the effects of climate change.

 

CHALLENGES TO OCEANIA’S SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 

Many Pacific islands that make up Oceania are part of the Small Island Developing States (SIDS), a group of small island countries that share sustainable development challenges. In order to tackle their main difficulties, a SIDS Partnership Framework has been established by the United Nations as part of the Partnerships for SDGs. Although remarkable progress has been made, SIDS' sustainable development is still constrained by some ecological and economic vulnerabilities. SIDS are geographically-isolated and remote countries with small population and limited natural resources. This makes their economy quite narrow-based and highly dependent on international trade. In addition to economic factors, SIDS’ weakness also emanates from their vulnerability to climate change and natural disasters. As stated in the 2013 World Bank report Acting on climate change and disaster risk for the Pacific, such ecological vulnerability is due to the combination of high exposure to extreme weather events and the low capacity to manage their outcomes.

 

Global climate change adds to the aforementioned challenges, and acts as an aggravating factor to them. Factors causing climate change are diverse but largely linked to human activity, mainly greenhouse gas emissions. Although Pacific islands are responsible for less than 1% of global emissions, they are one of the most affected areas by climate change. Among the multiple effects of climate change, the most threatening for Oceanian communities are the change of climate patterns, the rise of sea levels (especially alarming for low-lying states) and the increase, both in number and in intensity, of extreme weather events. While sea levels rise threaten the mere existence of Pacific territories  (Tuvalu and some islands of Papua New Guinea, for instance, are experiencing the shrinking of 20 cm of their land every year), natural disasters cause widespread destruction of infrastructures and marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as casualties and the displacement of entire societies.

 

Climate change impacts a large number of aspects in the lives of Oceanian communities. As for the economy, the main sectors affected are the fishing and the agricultural industries, and tourism. Given that the fishing industry accounts for a 10% of total GDP of Pacific SIDS, the damaging of marine ecosystems, the change in ocean patterns and the resultant migration of species have very negative effects on their inhabitants, comprising the loss of jobs, food security and conflict among fisheries. As for tourism, which also represents a significant portion of Pacific SIDS’ GDP, such activity might be also put at risk by the destruction of ecosystems, the rise of sea levels and the erosion of coastal areas. In addition to the effects on economic sectors, climate change causes Pacific governments annual losses of GDP that are higher than the world average (see graph 1). According to the World Bank, 8 out of the 20 countries with the highest average annual disaster losses scaled by GDP are Pacific island countries: Vanuatu, Niue, Tonga, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, the Marshall Islands, and the Cook Islands. 

 

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

Environmentally, climate change also poses a wide range of threats. Besides extreme weather events (such as floods and storms) and the rise of sea levels (which in some points of West Pacific has reached 12 mm per year, four times higher than the world average), there are many other ways in which natural resources and biodiversity are affected. A few examples include habitat loss, erosion of ecosystems, and coral bleaching. Lastly, regarding the social consequences of climate change, one should note the risk to public health (caused by food and water insecurity, as well as by decreasing incomes) and the displacement and migration of communities.

​

For all these reasons, not only does climate change threaten the livelihood and sustainable development of Oceanian communities, but it also complicates the global achievement of UN Sustainable Development Goals. Immediate action is, hence, needed.

​

​

​

THE ROLE OF THE OCEANS IN OCEANIA'S SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

 

The oceans cover about two thirds of the Earth’s surface and contain 97% of the Earth’s water. Scientific evidence confirms that oceans and climate are linked in such a way that what happens in the oceans has an impact on the climate, and vice versa. This is why, despite being frequently regarded as one of the main "victims" of climate change, oceans are also part of the solution to it. On one hand, climate change causes the alteration of some ocean patterns, such the rise of sea levels, the rise of water temperature, ocean acidification and the modification of currents and salinity. On the other hand, oceans provide a wide range of resources that can help mitigate the effects of climate change. Given that the Pacific Ocean, home to Oceanian islands, is the largest and the deepest of the world, it seems reasonable to to think of it as Oceania's best ally in the achievement of sustainable development and, consequently, in the fight against climate change.  

 

It is well known that the oceans regulate weather and climate. However, the role of the oceans in climate change is complex and still under study by the scientific community. The oceans release compounds into the atmosphere that can contribute both to climate heating, by acting as greenhouse gases, and to climate cooling. Therefore, the net impact of the oceans in climate change is unclear. A gas that illustrates such ambiguity is H20 in the form of water vapour. This one is, surprisingly, the most  potent greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere are those that absorb and trap infrared energy from the Earth’s surface, determining how much heat is retained in our planet. Water vapor in the atmosphere, which is mainly formed through the evaporation from the oceans, absorbs 36–85% of Earth’s outgoing infrared energy, compared with the much lower 9–26% absorbed by carbon dioxide (CO2). On the other hand, water vapour favours cloud formation. Clouds reflect much of the incoming sunlight back into space, producing a cooling effect that contrasts the greenhouse effect. Thus, water vapor exemplifies how a single compound can have opposed effects on climate. As if it was not complex enough, the oceans release other compounds, such as dimethyl sulfide (CH3SCH3) or  organohalogens, that contribute in various ways to climate change.

 

Solutions to climate change require the coordinated action of local, national and international actors worldwide. Pacific islands have been long committed to this fight, as well as to the achievement of sustainable development. In fact, many of their governments have already established legal frameworks, and significant progress has been made. However, while most of the discussions at all levels are basically focused on the need to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, the potential that ecosystems possess to mitigate climate change effects and ensure sustainable development is usually ignored. The use and the management of marine ecosystems for such purposes constitute what the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) calls “nature-based” solutions. These seek to take advantage of the possibilities that nature offers, and their development appears to be a “win-win” investment. Not only do they benefit human communities by contributing to the fight against climate change and to the reduction of disaster risk, but they also benefit biodiversity by favouring diverse, well-managed and functioning ecosystems. In addition, the restoration and conservation of natural resources is, in the long run, far more cost-effective than engineered alternatives. In this section, we will briefly describe some of the mechanisms of the ocean, as well as suggest some ocean-based solutions, that can help Oceania overcome its environmental vulnerabilities.

​

​

The ocean as a renewable energy source

 

The oceans are filled with energy.  Wind, waves and currents together contain 300 times more energy than humans are currently consuming. The potential of these sources went unnoticed for quite long time; however, in the recent years, we have begun to discover their possibilities. Nowadays, the main renewable marine energies are those emanating from the wind, waves, tides, ocean currents, temperature differences at various ocean depths (ocean thermal energy conversion – OTEC) and different salt content (osmotic power). In addition, oceans are home to 90% of world’s biomass.

 

Up until now, offshore wind farms and power plants have been built, allowing the transformation of wind and wave energy into electricity. OTEC facilities also exist in places with significant differences in ocean depth, such as Japan or Hawaii. Nonetheless, most of the aforementioned sources have not been developed at a large scale. The proliferation of these marine renewable energies is constrained by factor such as technology inability, excessive costs of production, potential locations being confined to marine reserved areas, and conservationists’ criticism on the impact of large constructions. Despite the challenges, marine renewable energies could meet a significant share of the world’s energy needs, if not all of them, in the future. It is a matter of political will, determination and rightful choices to successfully develop and manage such energies. The vast extension of the Pacific Ocean is an opportunity for Oceanian nations, specially the economically strongest ones, to lead the such development.

 

The ocean as a carbon and heat sink

​

The oceans are able to store heat, water and carbon dioxide, move them across the Earth and exchange them with the atmosphere. This is why oceans are considered the Earth’s largest carbon and heat sink. In the last 200 years, they have absorbed, through the various ecosystems living underwater, a third of all carbon emissions produced by human activities, as well the 90% of extra heat in our atmosphere, caused by burning fossil fuels and trapped by the action of greenhouse gases.

 

On one hand, water absorbs and loses heat more slowly than land masses, making the ocean a primary regulator of global temperatures. On the other hand, carbon dioxide released by human activities, as well as from the biosphere, is 50 times more absorbed by the oceans than by the atmosphere. This helps reduce the greenhouse effect that traps radiation of the Earth’s atmosphere but, at the same time, causes ocean acidification. Marine species are adapted to certain levels of acidity, and the increase of such levels can have negative consequences on them. A case in point is erosion of coral reefs.

 

With benefits and drawbacks, the oceans play an important role in the so-called “blue carbon” absorption and storage. Such functions are carried out by of marine ecosystems, called blue carbon ecosystems, that include numerous species, from mangroves and seagrass meadows to some marine vertebrates, such as whales and sharks. However, marine ecosystems can only execute these functions if they are healthy and abundant; otherwise, carbon is released back into the atmosphere, aggravating the greenhouse effect. Unfortunately, blue carbon ecosystems are being damaged by a wide range of factors, mainly attributed to human activity, and an estimated 340,000 to 980,000 hectares of them are being destroyed each year. Consequently, an estimated amount of 1.02 billion tons of carbon dioxide are being released annually from degraded coastal ecosystems. For all these reasons, interests in blue carbon projects are rapidly increasing. An example is the Blue Carbon Initiative, a partnership between UNESCO, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), IUCN and Conservation International that aims at the restoration and conservation of marine ecosystems in order to maintain their carbon absorption and storage functions, thus mitigating climate change effects. In addition, some schemes of a global market for blue carbon have been set, and discussions around this topic have started at some UN agencies.

 

Oceania is a region rich in blue carbon ecosystems. Australia and Papua New Guinea, for instance, are among the countries with the highest areas of mangroves in the world. Blue carbon projects can become a major benefit for Oceanian countries: not only do they represent an economic opportunity but they also contribute to climate change mitigation and the achievement of sustainable development.

 

 

The ocean as buffer of extreme weather events

​

Besides being significant carbon sinks, marine ecosystems also act as a buffer of extreme weather events, mitigating some of the worst effects of climate change. A good example is mangroves, that act as natural sea walls, protecting coastal communities from extreme wave action, storm and strong winds.  Given that Oceania is one of the world’s most impacted regions by climate change (with high propensity to natural disasters) and also one of the richest in biodiversity, it makes sense to think of projects that aim at strengthening the management and conservation of marine ecosystems. A case in point is the Mangrove Ecosystems for Climate Change Adaptation & Livelihoods (MESCAL) Project, carried out by the IUCN. The project, that operated in Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Tonga between December 2009 and December 2013, seeked to improve resilience of Pacific communities to climate change while improving the health of marine ecosystems.

​

​

​

CONCLUSION

​

Oceania, home to numerous small Pacific islands, is one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change, with environmental and economic factors threatening the livelihood of its communities and constraining its sustainable development. Despite these vulnerabilities, Oceania counts with the largest and deepest world ocean, the Pacific Ocean, provider of a wide range of resources that sustain entire populations. In addition, healthy oceans play a crucial role in climate regulation and in climate change mitigation. Taking all this into consideration, the ocean appears to be Oceania’s best ally in the fight against climate change and in the achievement of sustainable development. Nonetheless, it is a matter of political will and effective coordinated action among local, regional and international actors that ocean-based solutions become a tool for Oceania to overcome its weaknesses and benefit from its strengths.

​

​

Bibliography

​

World Bank Group. 2017. "The Potential Of The Blue Economy - Increasing Long-Term Benefits Of The Sustainable Use Of Marine Resources For SIDS And Coastal Least Developed Countries". UN and World Bank Group. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2446blueeconomy.pdf.

​

World Bank. 2013. "Acting On Climate Change & Disaster Risk For The Pacific". World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/EAP/Pacific%20Islands/climate-change-pacific.pdf.

​

FAO. 2014. "Global Blue Growth Initiative And Small Island Developing States (SIDS)". FAO. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2236Global%20Blue%20Growth%20Init

​

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). 2015. "Urbanization And Climate Change In Small Island Developing States". Nairobi. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2169(UN-Habitat,%202015)%20SIDS_Urbanization.pdf.

​

Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS). 2015. "Small Island Developing States In Numbers - Climate Change Edition 2015". https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2189SIDS-IN-NUMBERS-CLIMATE-CHANGE-EDITION_2015.pdf.

"The Ocean Conference | 5-9 June 2017 | Oceanic Blue Carbon Voluntary Commitment." United Nations. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://oceanconference.un.org/commitments/?id=21396.

​

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). "IUCN Oceania Regional Plan 2017-2020.". IUCN. Accessed April 20. https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/iucn_oceania_regional_plan_2017-2020_3.5.17.pdf.

​

Polidoro, Beth A., Cristiane T. Elfes, Jonnell C. Sanciangco, Helen Pippard, and Kent E. Carpenter. 2011. "Conservation Status Of Marine Biodiversity In Oceania: An Analysis Of Marine Species On The IUCN Red List Of Threatened Species". Journal Of Marine Biology 2011. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jmb/2011/247030/cta/.

​

Harrison, Tim, Anwar Khan, and Dudley Shallcross. "Climate Change: Why the Oceans Matter." Science in School, no. 39 (March 27, 2017). March 27, 2017. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://www.scienceinschool.org/content/climate-change-why-oceans-matter.

​

"Climate Change Overview." Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme. Accessed April 20, 2018. http://www.sprep.org/Climate-Change/climate-change-overview.

​

"Ocean and Climate Change." The Ocean Foundation. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://www.oceanfdn.org/resources/ocean-and-climate-change.

​

"Renewable Energies." World Ocean Review. 2010. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/energy/renewable-energies/.

​

"Aqua Facts." Hawaii Pacific University. Oceanic Institute. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://www.oceanicinstitute.org/aboutoceans/aquafacts.html.

​

"How Climate Change Relates to Oceans." WWF. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/how-climate-change-relates-to-oceans.

​

"FEATURE: Climate Change and the World's Oceans." United Nations. June 6, 2017. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/06/feature-climate-change-and-the-worlds-oceans/.

​

"Blue Carbon." The Blue Carbon Initiative. Accessed April 20, 2018. http://thebluecarboninitiative.org/blue-carbon/.

​

"About Oceania: Our Sky. Our Land. Our Ocean. Our People." IUCN. May 01, 2017. Accessed April 20, 2018. https://www.iucn.org/regions/oceania/about.

​

Warne, Kennedy. "Pictures: Rising Seas Are Already Damaging These Pacific Islands." National Geographic. October 20, 2015. Accessed April 22, 2018. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/10/151020-rising-seas-pictures-photos-climate-change-kiribati/?_ga=2.52509416.1191871830.1527336900-945431748.1518774569.

​

Warne, Kennedy. "Will Pacific Island Nations Disappear as Seas Rise? Maybe Not." National Geographic. June 05, 2016. Accessed April 22, 2018. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/02/150213-tuvalu-sopoaga-kench-kiribati-maldives-cyclone-marshall-islands/?_ga=2.52509416.1191871830.1527336900-945431748.1518774569.

​

Sokhin, Vlad, and Janice Cantieri. "See How Pacific Islanders Are Living With Climate Change." National Geographic. February 09, 2017. Accessed April 22, 2018. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/proof/2017/02/climate-change-pacific-islands/#/05-climate-change-pacific.jpg.

​

​

​